How long does it take to transfer from an F1 visa to a permanent resident?

It will take quite a while, and you will not have authorization to stay in the US while you are waiting. After you get married, you will be a family-based second preference (FB-2A) relative. The priority date is backlogged to July 2008, so it may be 3-4 years before visas are available for you to apply for your green card. It will be unlikely for you to get an F-1 extension as you will be married to a US permanent resident. This means you will need to find another nonimmigrant status for the next few years or leave the US. After your priority date is current, the process takes only about 6 months at the current processing times.

Your spouse needs to become a US naturalized citizen to speed up the process. If your spouse does not naturalize, then you need to maintain your F1 status.

You will have to continue with your student visa until she becomes a USC or if she files a petition as permanent resident, until priority date becomes current. Remember, F-1 is for people that have the intention to go back to their home country.

That depends on where you live. It generally takes 3 to 4 months after you filed.